This paper describes the design principles that have to be in mind, if videos for educational purposes are produced. Additionally, didactical interactions are presented that allow every teacher in school and higher education the transformation of existing videos into educational videos. The theoretical basis for the design principles are Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) and research on Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC's). Didactical interactions, like students' control, guiding questions, action-oriented tasks and the possibility of social exchange are based on the principle of active learning and can be put into practice with the user-friendly and open source web tool H5P. Video in education should always be part of a well thought didactical concept and/or used in the context of media and method diversity.

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Open Online Journal for Research and Education

Special Issue #12, September 2018, ISSN: 2313-1640

How to create Educational Videos:

From watching passively to learning actively

Josef Buchner*

Abstract

This paper describes the design principles that have to be in mind, if videos for educational purposes are

produced. Additionally, didactical interactions are presented that allow every teacher in school and higher

education the transformation of existing videos into educational videos. The theoretical basis for the design

principles are Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) and research on Massive Open Online

Courses (MOOC's). Didactical interactions, like students' control, guiding questions, action-oriented tasks and

the possibility of social exchange are based on the principle of active learning and can be put into practice with

the user-friendly and open source web tool H5P. Video in education should always be part of a well thought

didactical concept and/or used in the context of media and method diversity.

So gelingen Lernvideos:

Vom passiven Konsumieren zum aktiven Lernen

Zusammenfassung

Dieser Beitrag beschreibt die Designprinzipien, die zu beachten sind, wenn Videos für Bildungszwecke produziert

werden. Zusätzlich werden didaktische Interaktionen vorgestellt, die es jedem Lehrer in Schule und Hochschule

ermöglichen, bestehende Videos in Lehrvideos umzuwandeln. Die theoretischen Grundlagen für die

Gestaltungsprinzipien sind Mayers Kognitive Theorie des Multimedialen Lernens (CTML) und die Forschung zu

Offenen Massen-Online-Kursen (MOOCs). Didaktische Interaktionen, wie Schülerkontrolle, Leitfragen,

handlungsorientierte Aufgaben und die Möglichkeit zum sozialen Austausch basieren auf dem Prinzip des aktiven

Lernens und können mit dem benutzerfreundlichen und Open-Source-Web-Tool H5P umgesetzt werden. Video

in der Bildung sollte immer Teil eines durchdachten didaktischen Konzepts sein und/oder im Rahmen der

Medien- und Methodenvielfalt eingesetzt werden.

Keywords: Schlüsselwörter:

Educational Video Lernvideo

Educational Technology Bildungstechnologie

Didactical Interactions Didaktische Interaktionen

1 Introduction

The use of video as a learning medium has a long tradition in education, but its availability has radically changed

during the last years. Videocassettes or DVDs are relics of the past. Today, documentaries, film scenes, and

explanatory videos can be found on online platforms like YouTube, Vimeo and many others. Also the style of the

videos has been dramatically modified, because of new technological possibilities that allow you to record your

screen and voice while working with software or to use 3D figures and models to tell a story. What sounds like a

lot of effort at first, is nowadays feasible for every educator with the appropriate software. Online, the videos

are accessible all the time and on every mobile device, which makes learning with videos possible outside the

classroom. Recent media studies show that access to the Internet is growing continuously and that mobile

* University of Teacher Education St. Gallen, Institute for ICT and Media, Müller-Friedbergstraße 34,

9400 Rorschach, CH. E-mail: josef.buchner@phsg.ch

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devices are playing an increasingly important role to enter the world-wide-web (European Union, 2017). For

students, YouTube is the most important platform on the web. Beside the consumption of the offered

entertainment clips (e.g. Music, Comedy, Gaming Tutorials,…), YouTube is also used as a tutoring platform

(Medienpädagogischer Forschungsverbund Südwest (mpfs), 2017). Especially for mathematical homework

problems, kids and teenagers have reported that they look for tutorials to be able to continue with the tasks.

The reported development allows teachers in school and higher education to implement new forms of teaching

and learning with videos. A concept that currently attracts a lot of attention is the Flipped or Inverted Classroom

Model (Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Handke, 2014; Lage, Platt, & Treglia, 2000). In this didactical approach,

technology is used to prepare the students at home. Most implementations use videos for this phase (de los

Arcos, 2014; O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). In the classroom the educators then answer open questions and offer

cooperative and problem-oriented tasks. In this concept the teachers act like "guides on the side" instead of

"sages on the stage" (King, 1993). Reported benefits of the Flipped or Inverted Classroom are more time for

interactive in-class activities, which was also rated positively by students, and the availability to the instructional

materials regardless of place and time (Bishop & Verleger, 2013).

A second approach is blended learning, which combines face-to-face lectures with online learning. Especially

in higher education this concept is not just a trend, but an effective and low-risk strategy to handle forthcoming

challenges like organizing studies, digital transformation and more competitors in the field of education. The

main benefits of blended learning scenarios can be the facilitation of creativity as well as critical and complex

thinking (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). This approach can be realized with various forms of multimedia, but video

also plays an ever-increasing role. Evidence for this can be found in the literature about Massive Open Online

Courses (MOOC's). This "online only" courses are offered by universities around the globe and use instructional

videos to deliver content for a mass audience (Hansch, Hillers, McConachie, Newman, & Schmidt, 2015). The

most important MOOC platform is edX, where Harvard University, MIT, Berkeley and lots of others share their

produced materials with students all over the world. The courses are open source and also the videos are shared

on YouTube. So as an educator you can use these videos for your blended learning scenario or for a Flipped

Classroom. The same goes for the Austrian MOOC designer iMooX and the German platform OnCampus, which

both provide their materials free and under a CC-BY license on YouTube. In addition to the presented didactical

approaches, videos can of course be used in a traditional classroom. Instead of just watching the videos sitting

down, the video content can be offered through QR-codes or Augmented Reality markers. The students then

walk around in the classroom and us their smartphones to reveal the videos behind the printed pictures and

codes (Buchner & Zumbach, 2018).

A lot of videos are already online and wait for their implementation in the classroom. But not all online videos

are educational videos and sometimes no video for a specific subject can be found. I suggest two solutions for

teachers in school and higher education how to handle this issue: First, produce your own educational videos

based on the design principles presented in the next section. Second, to transform existing videos into

educational videos with didactical interactions. How this can be done and which tools can be used will be

described in section three. Section four summarizes the findings and discusses further research.

2 Design Principles for Educational Videos

As for every educational material, the aim has to be defined to begin with. For example, a history teacher would

like to teach their pupils how a picture from the past can be analyzed. In the video the teacher will speak about

the criteria for historical source analysis and show every step of it providing an example. Another objective could

be to challenge the students with a particular situation (e.g. a conflict); afterwards they suggest solutions for the

observed situation. Next step is the preparation phase, in which a storyboard has to be written. The more

detailed and accurate the storyboard, the shorter the production time will be. The third step is the production

with the following design principles in mind:

2.1 Combine visualizations with spoken text

To maximize student learning from video, Cognitive Load Theory and Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

must be taken into consideration (Brame, 2016). Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) differentiates between intrinsic,

germane and extraneous cognitive load. Educational material should not increase the extraneous cognitive load,

because this could lead to an cognitive overload and hinder the learning effect (Paas & Sweller, 2014; Zumbach,

2010). To prevent a cognitive overload and optimize germane cognitive load, the findings of the Cognitive Theory

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Special Issue #12, September 2018, ISSN: 2313-1640

of Multimedia Learning (CTML) can help (Mayer, 2002, 2014a). The most important result for teaching and

learning with video is that learning with a combination of text and picture is more effective than learning with

just a text (Butcher, 2014) and that picture with spoken text is better than picture, written and spoken text as

well as just picture and text (Ayres & Sweller, 2014; Low & Sweller, 2014). So for the production of educational

videos, pictures in combination with spoken language but without too much text should be used.

2.2 Use highlighting elements

To keep the attention during watching, the use of signaling (or cueing) is recommended (Brame, 2015). This

principle can be realized with arrows that point on a specific place on the screen or with colors, which highlight

for example that part of the picture that is being explained. In spoken text, signaling can also be achieved through

intonation or subtitles (van Gog, 2014).

2.3 Avoid distractions

The purpose of an educational video is to support the learning process. For that, no "Hollywood-style" elements

are needed. Keep the video as simple as possible. Brame (2016) calls this weeding which is the elimination of

information that does not contribute to the learning goal. For example, music, background noise and extra

features that can divert attention from the instructional content are elements that should be avoided. Also,

unnecessary additional or redundant information should not show up in an educational video or any other

educational medium (Kalyuga & Sweller, 2014). Here, also the use of persons or the so-called talking head (=when

the speaker is visible in the video with face and shoulders) have to be discussed. Referring to the authors above

and the findings of Mayer (2014b), persons or a talking head must not be part of an educational video, except

the speaker has a relevant role for the learning process (e.g. an interview with an expert). The use of the talking

head, which is a video clip showing the speaker until his or her shoulders, in combination with slides (e.g.

PowerPoint) tends to have quite a positive effect on student engagement (Guo, Kim, & Rubin, 2014). Contrary,

Hansch et al. (2015) point out that the talking head can be perceived as monotonous, but has the potential to

build an emotional connection between the viewer and the lecturer. And as research has shown, emotions are

a good way to promote successful learning (De Bruyckere, Kirschner, & Hulshof, 2015, p. 87; Gläser-Zikuda, Fuß,

Laukenmann, Metz, & Randler, 2005). More research has to be done in this field to be able to make serious

statements. Until then, teachers should decide on their own if they want to be visible in self-made videos or not.

My recommendation, based on practical experiences, is to welcome the learners with a picture, provide them

with an overview of the upcoming topic and then disappear. Before the end of the video the picture of the

speaker shows up again with thanks for watching and ending on a goodbye note.

2.4 Keep it short!

The length of an educational video is an important factor to keep students watching until the end. Guo et al.

(2014) analyzed student engagement in four edX MOOC's. They found that the optimal length for videos is six

minutes or shorter. The highest engagement was found for videos with a length of three minutes, which coincides

with other authors who found that two to five minutes of video length were preferred (Gruber & Buchner, 2017;

Thomson, Bridgstock, & Willems, 2014).

2.5 Provide structure

To allow students a successful organization of the presented pictures and words in their working memory, time

is needed. Especially when the information is rich and fast presented, short chunks can help to prevent a

cognitive overload (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). In various experiments Mayer and Chandler (2001) found that a

multimedia presentation, which is broken down into smaller parts is more effective compared to a non-

segmented presentation. Important is here that the learners have control over the parts and click forward if they

are ready with their understanding. Brame (2016) complements that the principle of segmenting (Mayer &

Moreno, 2003) can be realized with regard to the video length explored by Guo et al. (2014) and interactive

elements that give learners' control over the content in a video presentation (Ibrahim, Antonenko, Greenwood,

& Wheeler, 2012; Zhang, Zhou, Briggs, & Nunamaker, 2006). In practice use numbers, titles or other forms of

enumerations.

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2.6 Tell and show a story

Inventing a story for content can have a huge impact on the learning process. The Cognition and Technology

Group at Vanderbilt (1992) invented a character called "Jasper Woodburry" to motivate students during the

process of mathematical problem solving. Learners can identify with such a character and are willing to help him.

Computer games use the same principle to keep the player playing (Gee, 2003). A story lives from emotions; so

for educational videos, capture attention with the unexpected, create suspense and surprising moments. Use

authentic problems and combine them with relevant visualizations (Koumi, 2006; Thomson et al., 2014).

2.7 Speak to YOUR audience

People learn more deeply when social cues are used in a video. Here, language has an important role to activate

and engage the viewers. According to the Personalization Principle, a conversational style of language is better

than the use of a formal language. To put this into practice, use "you" and "I" rather than the third person and

speak directly to the learners, for example "I'm sure you've already experienced that" (Mayer, 2014c). Also show

the learners that this special video is for them and for their personal development. Enthusiastic speaking can

also motivate the learners (Brame, 2016).

2.8 Expand the learning space

Video has the power to take your students on a journey to every place of interest. Virtual field trips through

video content can bring your students close to lions in the African desert, into the European Parliament to follow

a political discussion or even on a trip onto the moon can become reality (Koumi, 2006). Here, it is often criticized

that educational technology would like to abolish school trips. If a trip in reality is possible, of course, this is to

be preferred. It is important in this discussion to point out that there is not an "either or", but only a connecting

and complementary AND of digital/virtual and analog/real learning experiences (Tampio, 2018). For the learning

of psychomotor skills, micro and macro views as well as slow motion scenes can be used. Just think about the

football shooting technique of Neymar or the incredible step length of Usain Bolt. History education videos can

bring the past to life and support the imagination of the students. The same applies for demonstrations of

experiments in physics or chemistry, which would not be possible in everyday school life (Hansch et al., 2015).

The presented design principles can be used for all different styles of educational videos. Chorianopoulos

(2018) provide taxonomy of instructional videos with pros and cons to help educators by deciding with type

would fit best. For the beginning I recommend the easiest form of video type, which is a classical screencast.

Here, the screen of your laptop or tablet is recorded together with the spoken text. Use an existing presentation

that follows the guidelines above and record it. It must be noted that also this form of educational video takes

time in production. Additionally technology skills are needed, which are still not an integrate part of teacher

education or university didactic courses. Universities often install a center for teaching and learning or for

content production. Then the production of educational videos is done together with the experts of these

centers. In schools, such centers do not exist, so whether a video is produced or not is entirely up to the teacher.

The use of materials from the Internet must be considered too. Only non-copyrighted materials may be used in

the videos if they are to be published. Another way in school is to have students make the videos. With the

didactical approach learning by designing children and teens can train skills in media literacy as well as subject

specialized knowledge, soft skills like teamwork, cooperation, communication skills and are allowed to work

creatively (Kolodner et al., 2003).

As it turns out, there are obstacles if you want to create meaningful educational videos yourself. In order to

counteract this and still allow the use of educational videos, the next section will introduce didactical interactions

that can transform any video into an educational video.

3 Didactical Interactions within Videos

The basis for the following recommendations is the widespread concept of active learning. Active learning sums

up different learning strategies, which see students' activities as the center of the learning process. In practice

such strategies are experiential learning, learning by doing, participatory learning and forms of student-directed

learning (e.g. self-regulated learning experiences) as well as role-playing, laboratory work and the use of case

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studies (for an overview see Carr, Palmer, & Hagel, 2015). With active learning in mind it is important that

students also must be active during watching a video. Brame (2016) recommends interactions to realize this

claim as well as Mayer (2014b). Interactions are activities that try to support the learning process. Classic

interactions are navigation options such as pausing, forwarding and rewinding, which are available on almost all

video players in the Internet. These interactions can be separated from didactical interactions that are

implemented by educators and allow learners to engage in a proactive way with the presented content. Viewers

then can modify the video and get feedback related to their actions (Metzger & Schulmeister, 2004). Several

studies have shown that interactive video is associated with better learning outcomes, for knowledge as well as

task-performance and higher attention while watching (Lawson, Bodle, Houlette, & Haubner, 2006; Lawson,

Bodle, & McDonough, 2007; Merkt & Schwan, 2014; Merkt, Weigand, Heier, & Schwan, 2011; Schwan & Riempp,

2004; Szpunar, Khan, & Schacter, 2013). Mayer (2014b) notes that it is important to use behavioristic and

cognitive activations.

As mentioned before, with the right software almost every video can be transformed into an educational

video. I recommend the free and open source software H5P (https://h5p.org) that allows teachers to integrate

interactions to already existing YouTube videos. The software is user friendly, based online and with a plugin it

can be used within learning management systems (LMS, e.g. Moodle) too. How to use the software from the

technical side would go beyond the scope of this article. But I have collected instructions for H5P for you; with

the link https://t1p.de/h5panleitung you find videos in German, with the link https://t1p.de/h5pinstruction in

English. All of the following recommendations can be realized with this software.

3.1 Give learners control

For a long time the advantage of written learning materials over audio-visual ones was the possibility to turn

back to a needed page or to go further to a more interesting chapter. Now, almost all video players on the

Internet allow the users exactly this. On YouTube even the playback speed can be set, which is especially for

videos without sound, e.g. tutorials or instructions, very helpful. A didactical interaction in sense of control is the

organization of a video into chapters. Learners then can click on the appropriate topic and move directly to this

part of the video. This control option tends to contribute to higher learning outcomes and greater satisfaction

(Zhang et al., 2006). With the tool H5P this can be realized with two interactive elements. First, the set of

bookmarks at the beginning of every video is possible. Learners then see in an overview what content await them

and if it fits the given learning objectives, they can navigate to a specific chapter. Second, with the element

crossroad you can allow choices for your students regarding to their interests at a given time. According to the

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation choice can foster the feeling of autonomy, which can then promote

intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). In practice ask at the beginning of the video "What

do you want to start with?" and then present three to five topics the learners can choose from. The element

crossroad and bookmarks allow teachers the usage of videos longer than six minutes too, because the video can

be subdivided into shorter units. As mentioned before segmenting is a design criteria for educational videos.

Control is an easy way to motivate and activate students while watching videos. Too much control can hinder

the learning process and could probably lead to a cognitive overload (Paas & Sweller, 2014), so a balance

between self-control and teacher's task is recommended (Hill, Wiley, Miller Nelson, & Han, 2003; Karich, Burns,

& Maki, 2014).

3.2 Use guiding questions and action-oriented tasks

The main problem of video in education is that students experience it as an easy medium. This leads to passive

consummation and a lack of commitment (Salomon, 1984). Probably you have experienced this fact yourself

when a teacher started a film and the order was to note the most important information. Especially when the

content is totally new to learners, this lack of guidance hinders learning. Lawson et al. (2007) compared groups

of learners while watching an educational video with four different conditions. The control group just watched

the video, the second group took free notes and groups three and four read guiding questions. Additionally group

three was not allowed to answer the guiding questions while watching the video, but group four. The group who

answered the guiding questions achieved the highest score in a quiz that was offered to the participants

immediately after the learning process. Interesting result here is that the score for quiz questions unrelated to

the guiding questions is similar for all groups. So the anxiety that guiding questions can lead to limited attention

can be discarded, rather they might help to identify key concepts within the video and support an active

engagement with the presented content. The action of writing down notes and answers related to the questions

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is strongly recommended (Lawson et al., 2006, 2007). So, in practice show a video as part of a flipped classroom

or in class and prepare questions or materials that activate your students during the clip. This can be done with

traditional materials like a blank map, which needs to be supplemented or like mentioned before with questions

that lead like a path through the video content. Another idea is to prepare answers and let your students search

for the questions. In addition to these analog possibilities, online tools like H5P allow the integration of different

types of tasks directly into videos.

When learners reach the passage with the task the video stops and they can complete it via clicking, dragging

or dropping. H5P allows the creation of single choice and multiple choice questions, drag and drop tasks, fill in

the blank as well as writing tasks like open questions or essay writing and reflective pauses. Szpunar et al. (2013)

found that interpolated exercises like memory tests reduce mind wandering, facilitate learning and can also lead

to more note taking. Similar results have been found by Vural (2013), who used educational videos with

embedded questions to teach computer literacy to in-service teachers. The author points out that the

implementation of action-oriented interactions, for example creating a concept map (Vural & Zellner, 2010),

must be in mind when working with video.

Interpolated tasks have a big advantage: They immediately give feedback to the learners who can then decide

for themselves if a deeper engagement with the presented content is necessary (Brame, 2015).

3.3 Make it social!

The use of videos in education is usually associated with two extremes: First, all students watch a film together

in class and individual learning pace or prior knowledge is ignored. Second, video isolates learners and prevents

the exchange with others in order to deepen, discuss and reflect on the learning content. Here are a few tips

how you can leave these extremes behind you and make video learning to a social event:

- Allow your students to watch videos together, in pairs or small teams. With H5P you can integrate text boxes

in every YouTube video or self-created video to make the cooperative viewing a condition.

- Implement learning goals and task, which need exchange. For example, use an open question format with

the instruction "Ask one (or two, three,…) classmate(s) for his/her opinion and compare it with yours!" The video

stops, the learners talk to each other (also when the video is used as homework, then they can communicate

with their smartphones or other media) and then they write their answer.

- Realize group-working methods like Jigsaw. With the interactive element Crossroad you can subdivide every

video into chapters. Four students watch four different chapters and afterwards they discuss the content and

present their summary to the classmates.

- Use the comment function, e.g. on YouTube or find software that allows your learners to annotate the video.

Vohle (2017) invented the edubreak player and used it in German Soccer Trainer Education. This program is

taught through a blended learning format that includes an online phase with Social Video Learning. Within this

tool the participants can analyze football videos with regard to tactical and technical patterns by drawing arrows,

circles, etc. and writing commentaries directly onto the sequences. The given feedback shows that the learners

are satisfied with this form of video learning and that the learning goals can be reached. Advantages of Social

Video Learning can be spontaneous reflections that belong to relevant situations, drawings and writings of these

reflections as well as the coordinated exchange between the students. Additionally to sports trainer education

Social Video Learning has been successfully used in teacher education and vocational training (Vohle, 2016; Vohle

& Reinmann, 2014).

- Probably the most important idea on how to use videos in education is the learning by design approach.

Students then are active designers of videos, write a storyboard in a team, look for relevant materials and

produce their own video (e.g. with a smartphone). Content knowledge, life skills (e.g. teamwork, speaking to an

audience, problem-solving…) as well as media literacy can be developed with this active learning method

(Kolodner et al., 2003; Palmgren-Neuvonen & Korkeamäki, 2015; Schuck & Kearny, 2006; Stevenson, Länsitie,

Kogler, & Bauer, 2015).

- If a video already exists, interactions can be used for a learner-oriented design process too. Benkada and

Moccozet (2017) recommend letting students create interactions for educational videos. The teacher selects a

learning-goal relevant video and the students complete it with different tasks. After this process the educational

videos can be shared with the class or can be used by other teachers in other classes or learning environments.

Design principles are good to know, but didactical interactions have the power to support active learning.

Teachers had and still have to think about how to use different media in the classroom. Therefore, it can also be

expected to do so for the use of videos. The production of own educational videos cannot always be expected,

because it is time-consuming and certain technical competences are needed. But they can implement their

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considerations in the form of didactical interactions in already existing videos. These can be implemented easily

and quickly with user-friendly and open source online tools (e.g. H5P).

4 Summary

The use of video in education is not new, but the digitalization of it allows educators to invent new ways of

learning with it. I follow Brame (2015; 2016) here, who notes that video should always be part of a well thought

didactic setting. This can of course be in a classroom, supplemented with active learning tasks or as part of a

video-based treasure hunt. Use well-designed educational videos for the preparation phase of a Flipped/Inverted

Classroom or for blended learning scenarios. Allow your learners to watch videos together, starting a discussion

about the seen afterwards. Keep your videos short, speak to your audience and with enthusiasm. Avoid

"Hollywood-style" effects that gain too much attraction and focus on the defined learning goal. Tell a story,

create emotions and take your learners on a virtual field trip to nearly everywhere. With the upcoming format

of 360-degree videos, these trips will become more and more realistic. To keep the attention while video viewing

high, use different behavioristic and cognitive interactions. Implement quizzes, drag and drop as well as writing

tasks and give your learners control to have enough time for deep learning experiences. Organize your video into

chapters and use elements that support learners feeling of autonomy. At the end of this article it is important to

note that the use of video in education should be based on what we know about learning. Learning needs

diversity and surprise, and especially repetition and time, to study the content intensively (De Bruyckere et al.,

2015). Video is just one medium that can assist you and your students in this process. I recommend the use of

educational videos in the context of method and media diversity.

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... They enjoyed the video due to the various pictures, images, audio that support delivering the material. Buchner (2018) stated that to develop instructional video, the developer needs to integrate illustration with spoken text, highlight details, keep it clear, brief, and to the point, provide structure, and show and display a story. ...

This study aimed to determine teachers' perception toward teaching media in English language learning in the form of educational video using Project-Based Learning elementary school students. This research used case studies as the research method by using qualitative as the research design. Elementary school teachers in Buleleng regency were the object of this research. The content of the video was designed by using Project-based learning as the steps in delivering the material. The data were collected from interviews and a checklist. The analysis result of the research was most teachers preferred to use video as the learning media. The use of the video perceived positive perception by the teacher since video brings effective learning during the pandemic.

... Thus, passive viewers become de facto active learners. These interactions were embedded directly into the video -here exemplarily with H5P [36]. ...

Full Paper Research-to-Practice The current COVID-19 crisis has created significant challenges for schools. The growing importance of "flipping the classroom" and the needful emphasizing of online-learning were owed to the situation. To meet these requirements, materials and tasks must be adapted. The Open Educational Resource (OER) textbook "Computational Thinking with the BBC micro:bit" was developed for the introduction of Computational Thinking (CT) for 10-14-year-old pupils in Austria's secondary schools. Example tasks in the textbook are designed with an open end and present extensions with ideas for further development instead of ending abruptly. This article provides a guideline for a clear distinction in redesigning existing lessons following the Inverted Classroom Model (ICM) using videos for pre-class work and live task extensions for in-class work. Which parts in the learning design must remain as live lessons and which parts can be adapted for video lessons? The respective research shows that examples that have a makerspace activity as an extension are especially helpful for an efficient determination of the appropriate part in the learning design and particularly suitable for an adaptation with ICM. The central advantage of the ICM is that it responds flexibly to the individual learning needs of each student. It allows students to take their time reviewing the material at their own pace without getting left behind. The textbook used here encourages pupils to find their own solutions by explorative learning using the block-based programming environment MakeCode. Additional information to be uncovered by the learner is provided for every single step in the accompanying online wiki website. Results from observations showed that this uncover-function, being a central element of the online material, encouraged the learners to explore their own way in finding a solution with playful elements and increased motivation. The many haptic elements of a makerspace activity are in particular useful for consolidation of the learned and are predisposed for in-class work and deepening the understanding following the constructionism theory. A Design-Based Research (DBR) approach is used to create and evaluate the redesign of a proven example task in a pilot project. Teachers, who are already familiar with the BBC micro:bit and the OER textbook, were trained on how to use the "flip-version" of an example task in their lessons and asked to develop a lesson plan for implementation. The didactic approach to redesigning the material and teacher training was evaluated during the first cycle of DBR. Results from expert interviews showed that the redesigned material and training deliver a solid ground for rework and further research on a larger scale.

... Before the pandemic, some studies, like Buchner (2018) and Ou et al. (2019), attempted to investigate the principles of designing effective educational videos. The authors offered several recommendations to be followed when designing educational videos. ...

  • Zainab Alfayez Zainab Alfayez

Recent developments have seen a significant increase in the number of educational videos being made, mostly for use as a resource in a range of educational levels and different specializations. Indeed, currently, many universities either provide videos as supplementary resources or, indeed, offer entire courses as online learning materials. The qualitative study this paper presents was conducted to answer the following questions: "How have educational videos (lectures/tutorials) published on YouTube affected the university students' studies at both postgraduate and undergraduate levels?" and "would it be better to upload these types of videos onto a university website?" The aim was to explore the experiences of students from two universities (one a high- ranking university and one from a developing country) regarding online educational videos and to assess the extent to which these kinds of videos influence their studies. The data collection method used was individual interviews with students from two different universities to gather their perspectives, their opinions, and their aspirations regarding such videos. The results section analyzes and discusses the students' varied opinions. Based on the research findings, several recommendations are made to develop a useable design to add videos to university websites. Finally, the research discussed how this study's findings contribute during the COVID-19 pandemic.

... According to Guo (2014), stated that "video under 3 minutes yielded the highest engagement for user". Buchner (2018), stated that "music, background noise and extra features that can divert attention from the instructional content are elements that should be avoided". Based on table 3, the highest mean score of satisfaction is a keyboard shortcut which is 4.55. ...

... те се разглеждат като прототип приложим при такава организация на процеса на обучение, която се изгражда на основата на картинния визуално-образен мултисензитивиращ формат. образователните видеоклипове се дефинират във все повече напоследък научни литературни източници [3], [4], [5], [6], [7] като безценен инструмент в обучение проектирано за приложение в арт аними-рана класна стая, тъй като подпомагат възприемането, разбирането, приложението, анализът, синтезът и оценката на изучаваните понятията. "Възможностите за отложено гледане, т.нар. ...

  • Mariya Nikolaeva Nikolova Mariya Nikolaeva Nikolova

The article presents a unique, unusual and original experience of educational practice based on the innovative axioms of art animation in education designed to achieve educational goals. The analysis treats of a variety of concepts and trends in the application of video clips and educational videos footage in the classroom to achieve high-order goals – levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation of the cognitive taxonomy of Benjamin Bloom. The text considers an attractive training practice for creating video production by the trainees, presented as an original composition of creative and conceptual design; learning content – conceptual selection and technical implementation – role entry, frame dynamics, synchronization, processing and editing. The analytical exposition sheds light on the learning effects for the students involved in the art animated learning process. Methodological recommendations are made for the application of specific formats of art animation in education, in particular the production of video footage to achieve educational goals.

... Based on our review of the literature, we set out to design a concept (presented at EATAW 2019). This concept included keeping our tutorials short (3-6 min), breaking them up into multiple short tutorials, where needed (Bowles-Terry et al., 2010; Chen & Yang, 2019; Guo et al., 2014;Martin & Martin, 2015), and focusing on the content to avoid any gimmicks (Buchner, 2018;Bowles-Terry et al., 2010;Ljubojevic et al., 2014). Although much of the video tutorials' content was based on aspects introduced in the classroom in previous versions of these courses, it was essential to create new sets of slides for the video tutorials. ...

  • Larssyn Staley Larssyn Staley
  • Susan Göldi
  • Anna Nikoulina

Many studies have made claims for the positive effects of multimedia in education; however, there is a lack of systematic and comparable research, especially when it comes to video tutorials. This study evaluates the use and benefits of short screencast video tutorials, produced with Camtasia and published on YouTube, in preparing students for research-based writing assignments. The study employs a multi-method research design, comprising an analysis of video-tutorial viewership data from YouTube and a student questionnaire on the perceived benefits of these video tutorials. The data on how the tutorials are used, as well as the questionnaire responses, enable us to highlight which aspects of these tutorials positively affect the learning process, and importantly, how such tutorials should be adapted to be more useful. Findings indicate that the use of such tutorials is more dependent on the type of information included (e.g., theory, instructions or examples), than their length (within the range of three to six minutes). Additionally, novice, introductory-level students appear to have received greater benefit from the tutorials than students with some previous academic writing experience.

  • Marion Mitter Marion Mitter

In dieser Masterarbeit wurde dem komplexen didaktischen Zusammenspiel im Inverted Classroom nachgegangen, wobei insbesondere die didaktischen Anforderungen analysiert wurden, die auf Hochschullehrende bei der Umsetzung eines Inverted Classroom zukommen. Dabei lag ein Fokus auf der Wissensvermittlung durch Lehrvideos. Für die empirische Forschung wurden sieben Expert_innen, die dieses Modell an verschiedenen Hochschulen einsetzen, interviewt. Die Befragung ergab, dass von den meisten Lehrenden Videos im Office Setting produziert werden, wobei nicht die Erstellung perfekter Videos im Vordergrund steht, diese jedoch sehr gut geplant und vorbereitet werden. Die Expert_innen führten an, keine interaktiven Fragen in Videos einzubauen, Videos werden aber auf vielfältige Weise in die Lernumgebung eingebunden. Die Selbstlernphase wird oft durch eine Aufgabenstellung mit der Präsenzphase verknüpft, die in dieser aufgegriffen und vertieft wird. Hierbei werden Methoden unterschiedlich angewendet, wobei für die Betreuung großer Studierendenkohorten beispielsweise Audience-Response-Systeme unterstützend eingesetzt werden können. Zudem ändert sich im Inverted Classroom die Rolle der Lehrenden, die durch hohes Wissen, von Flexibilität und einer hohen Interaktivität gekennzeichnet ist, und deren Bedeutung durch die Vielfältigkeit, die durch die Befragungen offengelegt wurde, klar ersichtlich wird.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menghasilkan produk pengembangan modul Hybrid termodinamika yang terdiri dari e-modul dan video pembelajaran pada Mata Kuliah Temodinamika yang digunakan oleh perwira siswa di Politeknik Pelayaran Surabaya dengan berdasar konsep Self Directed Learning (SDL) sehingga pasis dapat belajar secara mandiri. Pengembangan produk ini menggunakan metode pengembangan ADDIE. Hasil produk divalidasi oleh ahli desain pengembangan, ahli isi dan ahli media pembelajaran. Analisis yang dilakukan menggunakan analisis deskriptif evaluatif dari penilaian para ahli, teman sejawat dan uji coba lapangan. Hasil perhitungan dari ahli desain pengembangan sebesar 89,5%, ahli isi 88,5%, ahli media pembelajaran 88,8%, penilaian teman sejawat 89,2%, uji kelompok kecil 85,9%, dan uji coba lapangan 81,3%. Secara umum hasil perhitungan menunjukkan produk pengembangan sangat baik dan layak digunakan. AbstractThis study aims to produce development products in the form of E-Modules and learning videos on the Themodynamics Course used by student officers (pasis) at the Surabaya Merchant Polytechnic based on the concept of Self Directed Learning (SDL) so that the pasis can learn independently. This product development uses the ADDIE development method. Product results are validated by development design experts, content experts and learning media experts. The analysis was conducted using evaluative descriptive analysis from the assessment of experts, colleagues and field trials. The results of calculations from development design experts are 89.5%, content experts are 88.5%, learning media experts are 88.8%, peer assessments are 89.2%, small group tests are 85.9%, and field trials are 81.3 %. In general, the calculation results show that product development is very good and suitable for use.

In this study the impact of a mobile augmented reality learning environment on motivation, learning effects and cognitive load was tested. Students participated in a two-hour history lesson while using their smartphones to turn static pictures into animations with an Augmented Reality (AR) application. Interest, perceived competence and perceived choice as indicators for intrinsic motivation were assessed. Results of the AR learning group were compared to a non-AR teacher-centered learning environment. The results reveal that augmented reality learning can promote intrinsic motivation and has an impact on history learning. Cognitive load has not been detected as a problem within the AR group.

  • Konstantinos Chorianopoulos

p class="FirstParagraph">Many educational organizations are employing instructional videos in their pedagogy, but there is a limited understanding of the possible video formats. In practice, the presentation format of instructional videos ranges from direct recording of classroom teaching with a stationary camera, or screencasts with voice-over, to highly elaborate video post-production. Previous work evaluated the effectiveness of several production styles, but there has not been any consistent taxonomy, which would have made comparisons and meta-analyses possible. Therefore, we need a taxonomy of instructional video formats that facilitates the understanding of the landscape of available instructional video production styles. For this purpose, we surveyed the research literature and examined contemporary video-based courses, which have been produced by diverse educational organizations and teachers across several academic disciplines. We organized instructional video styles in two dimensions according to the level of human presence and to the type of instructional media. In addition to organizing existing instructional videos in a comprehensive way, the proposed taxonomy offers a design space, which should facilitate choice, as well as the preparation of novel video formats.</p

  • Clément Benkada
  • Laurent Moccozet Laurent Moccozet

This paper investigates the uses of interactive video as a medium for teaching and learning activities. Based on the characteristics of interactive video annotations, various use cases are proposed and discussed. Two real experiments are then described. The first experiment is to add annotations to a video by teachers to produce course materials. The second is to produce a video and annotations on this video by student as an assessment work. The feedbacks of teachers and students are then summarized and discussed. The goal is to assess their feelings about the production of interactive videos as part of teaching and learning activities.

  • Frank Vohle Frank Vohle

strong>This Case Study describes a Blended Learning Pilot Scheme with focus on Social Video Learning (SVL) in the context of education for popular sports trainers in the German Football Association. The didactic design provides information on target groups, learning targets and the structuring of the learning environment. Finally, the first evaluation results under the framework of a design-based research study show the positive assessments by students and trainers together with the potential for improvement in the redesign of the next development cycle.</strong

  • Cynthia J Brame Cynthia J Brame

Educational videos have become an important part of higher education, providing an important content-delivery tool in many flipped, blended, and online classes. Effective use of video as an educational tool is enhanced when instructors consider three elements: how to manage cognitive load of the video; how to maximize student engagement with the video; and how to promote active learning from the video. This essay reviews literature relevant to each of these principles and suggests practical ways instructors can use these principles when using video as an educational tool.

  • Slava Kalyuga Slava Kalyuga
  • John Sweller

The redundancy principle (or redundancy effect) suggests that redundant material interferes with rather than facilitates learning. Redundancy occurs when the same information is presented concurrently in multiple forms or is unnecessarily elaborated. According to cognitive load theory, coordinating redundant information with essential information increases working memory load, which may interfere with learning. Eliminating such redundant information removes the requirement to coordinate multiple sources of information. Accordingly, instructional designs that eliminate redundant material can be superior to those that include redundancy. This chapter summarizes research and theory concerned with the effect of processing redundant information in multimedia learning, a history of research in instructional redundancy, the conditions of applicability of this principle, and its instructional implications.

  • Kirsten Butcher Kirsten Butcher

This chapter provides an overview of the multimedia principle, which refers to the finding that learning with words and pictures is more effective than learning with words alone. Although the multimedia principle initially was synthesized from research focused on text combined with (static or animated) illustrations, currently the term refers more broadly to learning supported by varied forms of visual and verbal content when presented in combination. The multimedia principle provides a rationale for research investigating the optimal design of multimedia learning materials, as well as the ways in which learning strategies and learner processing can combine with multimedia materials to result in specific outcomes. That is, the multimedia principle provides a context for research that examines when, how, why, and under what conditions the multimedia principle applies. This chapter summarizes basic findings on how the multimedia principle operates across different forms of multimedia representations, methods of learner interaction/generation, and levels of learner prior knowledge. Implications for cognitive theory and instructional design are discussed, as are future directions for multimedia research. As new learner-centered technologies become increasingly common, a key challenge will be to understand how the multimedia principle operates within digital environments that provide immersive and highly adaptable experiences. As technology advances, opportunities to embed multimedia content in broader contexts and to develop personalized multimedia content will push the boundaries of the multimedia principle.